The Jade Emperor

The Jade Emperor

(Image: Nipic.com)

According to the Taoist tradition, the 9th day of the first Chinese lunar month is the Birthday of the Jade Emperor (玉皇大帝聖誕 Yuhuang Dadi Shengdan), also known as the Birth of the Heavenly Lord (天公生). The Jade Emperor (玉皇大帝 Yuhuang Dadi) is a deity figure well known in Chinese popular culture. He is the sovereign of all the gods of the heaven realms and ruler of the manifest universe. All the deities and spirits of all the worlds everywhere are subordinate to his supreme authority.

In the entire Taoist pantheon, the Jade Emperor ranks only second to the three primordial deities known as the Three Pure Ones (三清 Sanqing) (the central figure of the Three Pure Ones, the Celestial Venerable of Primordial Beginning, was briefly mentioned in another post here). This trinity is an embodiment of the primal creative force of the Tao (Way), but because they are the personified embodiments of impersonal cosmic energies, they are somewhat considered to be beyond the call and reach of ordinary beings. Therefore, the Jade Emperor is considered to be their avatar because he is the divine monarch who rules over the celestial bureaucracy that oversees the worlds of gods, spirits, ghosts, and humans.

According to an early Taoist deity classification scheme, the Jade Emperor was also a part of the Four [Heavenly] Controllers (四御 Si Yu) who were considered to be the assistant divinities of the Three Pure Ones. They were responsible for ruling and overseeing different areas and aspects of the world. The group includes the Jade Emperor as the group’s leader; the Great Emperor of the Central Heaven of the North Pole of Purple Subtlety (中天紫微北極大帝 Zhongtian Ziwei Beiji Dadi); the Great Heavenly Emperor of the Supreme Palace of the Polaris Star (勾陳上宮天皇大帝 Gouchen Shanggong Tianhuang Dadi); and the Imperial God of the Earth/Land (后土皇地祇 Houtu Huang Diqi). Another scheme does not count the Jade Emperor as one of the Four Controllers but considers him as an independent leader of them; in which case, the Great Emperor of Longevity of the South Pole (南極長生大帝 Nanji Changsheng Dadi) is included amongst them instead.

A story of the origin of the Jade Emperor is given in a Taoist scriptural text called Collected Scriptures on the Fundamental Deeds of the Lofty Jade Emperor (高上玉皇本行集經 Gaoshang Yuhuang Benxing Jijing). He was born of his parents the Supreme Lord of the Great Tao ( 太上大道君 Taishang Dadaojun) and the Empress of Precious Moonlight (寶月光皇后 Baoyueguang Huanghou). As a young child, his character and conduct was always marked by wisdom, kindness, and compassion. After he grew up, he inherited his father’s throne, but later renounced it to pursue spiritual cultivation. He achieved immortality after many thousands of eons of cultivation, and after another hundred million eons, he attained to the rank of the supreme Jade Emperor.

The Jade Emperor

(Image: Source unknown)

His birthday is observed on the 9th day of the 1st lunar month because - of the single-digit odd (e.g. yang) numbers - 1 is the first (representing the primal or primordial) yang (odd) number, and 9 is the last (representing the ultimate or uppermost extreme) yang (odd) number.

On this day, followers of both the Taoist and popular folk religious traditions observe rites called Worshipping the Heavenly Lord (拜天公 bai tiangong) in his honor. Incense and special foods are made as offerings, and Taoist temples will conduct special ceremonies and recite scriptures.

It is also interesting to note that according to the Buddhist tradition, the birthday of Sakra (帝釋天 Dishi Tian) - sometimes called the Jade Emperor’s “Buddhist counterpart” because they share a very similar role - is also celebrated on this day by Buddhist followers (see the subsequent post about Sakra which can be found here).

Another interesting fact worthy of mention is that in 1982, a crater on Saturn's moon Rhea, discovered by the Voyager 2 spacecraft, was named Yu Ti which is an alternate spelling of Yu Di (玉帝), the abbreviated name of the Jade Emperor.

Text © 2011 Harry Leong

King Yama

Color Ink Painting of King Yama

(Image: Senwanture.com)

According to popular religious tradition, the Birthday of King Yama (閻羅王聖誕 Yanluo Wang Shengdan) is observed on the 8th day of the first Chinese lunar month. King Yama (閻羅王 Yanluo Wang) is a deity well known in both the Buddhist and Taoist traditions. His origin comes from Indian Vedic mythology where he is known as the lord and judge of the dead who decides the future rebirths of deceased beings based on their previous good and bad deeds while they were still alive.

King Yama of the Indian Vedic tradition, forerunner of Hinduism

(Image: Wikimedia Commons)

His name and title in the Indian Sanskrit language, Yama Raja (Yama King), was phonetically transliterated into Chinese as Yanmo Luoshe (閻魔羅社), and later shortened to Yanmoluo (閻魔羅) or just Yanluo (閻羅). The Chinese character for raja (king) is wang (王) and it was awkwardly re-appended to the already abbreviated name resulting in his Chinese name Yanmoluo Wang (閻魔羅王), Yanluo Wang (閻羅王), or sometimes just Yan Wang (閻王).

The Buddhist tradition adopted Yama from the Indian Vedic tradition where his role was similar although the stories concerning him are different. He is mentioned in early Pali Buddhist scriptures where he is a judge of the dead and ruler of the hell realms. He is also considered a Dharmapala (protector of the Buddhist Law) and a son of heaven (天子 tianzi) in the Mahayana Buddhist tradition as well. Although it is written that those that have committed non-virtuous deeds will go to meet Yama after death to be judged by him, it is of course one’s own good and bad karma that is really the ultimate determining factor. The transmission of Indian Buddhism across East Asia introduced the concept of Yama to China where it became a belief that later became entrenched in the native Taoist religion and also popular religious culture.

The exact whereabouts of Yama’s court is admittedly a bit ambiguous and might differ slightly according to the different religious traditions in China. Originally, in the Buddhist tradition, the word “hell” was generally used to translate the original Indian Sanskrit word naraka which was rendered into Chinese as diyu (地獄 earth prison). But over time and after much inter-religious engagement in China, the Buddhist, Taoist, and popular religious concepts of hell, purgatory, the netherworld, and the afterlife have all combined to become a somewhat blurry picture in popular religious thought of where King Yama actually dwells.

In the Buddhist tradition, there are many different numbers and schemes of hells that are mentioned in different texts. However, the actual nature of the hell realms is perhaps best expressed in the Mahayana scripture called Sutra of the Fundamental Vows of Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha (地藏菩薩本願經 Dizang Pusa Benyuan Jing) which teaches the idea that the number of hells is actually endless and uncountable because all the infinite hells are merely karmic transformations that come into existence for all the different types of sinners and the immoral and negative deeds that they commit.     

Notwithstanding the teachings of traditional mainstream Buddhism, a scheme of the Ten Courts of Hell was later evolved in popular religious culture. Each court was ruled by a different “Yama King” (the name being a bureaucratic position in this case) and was for judging a different category of misdeed. The kings of the ten courts were known collectively as the Yamas of the Ten Courts/Palaces (十殿閻王 Shidian Yanwang) and they are listed as follows:

1. King Qin Guang of the 1st Court (第一殿 秦廣王)             

2. King Chu Jiang of the 2nd Court (第二殿 楚江王)

3. King Song Di of the 3rd Court (第三殿 宋帝王)

4. King Wu Guan of the 4th Court (第四殿 五官王)

5. King Yan Luo (also called Sen Luo) of the 5th Court (第五殿 閻羅王/森羅王)

6. King Bian Cheng of the 6th Court (第六殿卞城王)

7. King Tai Shan of the 7th Court (第七殿 泰山王)

8. King Du Shi of the 8th Court (第八殿 都市王)

9. King Ping Deng of the 9th Court (第九殿 平等王)

10. King Zhuan Lun of the 10th Court (第十殿 轉輪王)
 

It should be noted that the king of the 5th court, King Yan Luo (Yanluo) is the original King Yama at the beginning of our discussion. There is also an alternate tradition that says King Yama is the leader of all the ten kings, and not just the king of the fifth court.

King Yama (Yanluo Wang) of the 5th Court

(Image: Diagrams of the Transformation Scenes of Hell 地獄變相圖) 

May all living beings practice virtue so that they do not have to be judged by King Yama!

Text © 2011 Harry Leong

Everybody’s Birthday

(Image: Clker.com)

On the 7th day of the first Chinese lunar month, the Chinese celebrate the People’s Day Festival (人日節 Renri Jie). The day is also known by other names such as Festival of the People’s Victory (人勝節 Rensheng Jie), Festival of the People’s Celebration (人慶節 Renxing Jie), Day of the Human Population (人口日 Renkou Ri), and Day of the People on the Seventh (人七日 Renqi Ri). It is also known informally as Everybody’s Birthday (人人生日 Renren Shengri). The day is still officially considered a part of the 15-day Chinese new year celebrations. The festival has its origins in an ancient creation myth that says the goddess Nuwa (女媧) created all the animals and humans of the world.


A modern picture depicting the ancient myth Nuwa Creates Humankind

(Image: Nipic.com)

According to a text written during the Jin dynasty (3rd to 5th century CE) called Questions and Answers on Rites and Customs (答問禮俗說 Dawen Lisu Shuo), chickens were created on the first day, dogs were created on the second day, pigs were created on the third day, sheep were created on the fourth day, oxen were created on the fifth day, horses were created on the sixth day, and humans were created on the seventh day. Therefore, the seventh day of the first month is observed to be the birthday of mankind and every person’s common birthday.

Nuwa creates all the animals and humankind

(Image: Hillfox Art Series)

In pre-modern China, everyone was considered to be another year older on the People’s Day Festival. On the days leading up to People’s Day, the slaughter of animals was avoided on their respective “birthdays” and on the seventh day, even prisoners were spared punishment. Fireworks were lit in revelry and special foods were traditionally eaten to celebrate the day.

Happy birthday to everybody on the People's Day Festival!

Text © 2011 Harry Leong

Dipankara Buddha

Statue of Dipankara Buddha, 7th century China

(Image: Source unknown)

The 6th day of the first Chinese lunar month is said to be the Birthday of Dipankara Buddha (定光佛聖誕 Dingguang Fo Shengdan). His name Dipankara means Causer of Light and is translated into Chinese as Buddha of Fixed Radiance (走光佛 Dingguang Fo) and Buddha of Burning Light (燃燈佛 Randeng Fo). According to the Buddhist tradition, Dipankara is a trans-historical Buddha. In other words, he lived and achieved enlightenment in a past age that preceded our recorded human history. It is written in a Mahayana Buddhist scripture that at the time of Dipankara Buddha, there was a rich Brahmin by the name of Sumedha who became his follower. He received a prediction from Dipankara that he would achieve enlightenment in a future age and become the Buddha named Shakyamuni (e.g. the historical Buddha of our time).

Sumedha prostrating before Dipankara Buddha

(Image: Wikimedia Commons/Life of the Buddha-Burmese Edition)

The Dipankara Buddha of traditional orthodox Buddhism should not be confused with a popular folk deity venerated by the Hakka communities of southern China called the Ancient Buddha of Fixed Radiance (定光古佛 Dingguang Gufo). This name was an honorific religious title posthumously given to Zheng Ziyan (鄭自嚴), a 10th century Buddhist master renown as a miracle worker who relieved the people from illnesses, dangerous animals, and other perils. He was later deified and venerated as the patron deity of the people who lived in Tingzhou prefecture (no longer extant) of western Fujian province.

Dipankara Buddha should also not be confused with the Burning Lamp Taoist (燃燈道人 Randeng Daoren), a character from the famous Ming dynasty classical novel Investiture of the Gods (封神演義 Fengshen Yanyi).


Text © 2011 Harry Leong

The Wealth God

Popular depiction of the Wealth God

(Image: Nipic)

The 5th day of the first Chinese lunar month, according to folklore, is the Birthday of the Wealth God (財神誕辰 Caishen Danchen). Another folklore says that it is the day that the Wealth God (財神 Caishen) descends to the human realm to make his inspection tour and distribute wealth. In either case, the day is considered an auspicious day for households and businesses to request his blessings by performing a rite called Welcoming the Wealth God (迎財神 Ying Caishen) or Receiving the Wealth God (接財神 Jie Caishen). Followers of the tradition offer food and incense to the Wealth God and pray for his favors. Worship activities can be done at home, work, or by visiting temples that venerate his image.

In the Taoist tradition, there is not just one wealth god, but many different wealth gods. There are several semi-historical and mythical figures that are considered to be wealth gods. They include Zhao Gongming (趙公明) of the 11th century BCE, a general under King Zhou of the Shang dynasty who died in battle while protecting the state; Bi Gan (比干) of the 11th century BCE, an uncle and imperial advisor to King Zhou of the Shang dynasty who had his heart cut out for courageously speaking the truth; Fan Li (范蠡) of the 5th century BCE, a statesman and strategist of the state of Yue during the Spring and Autumn period who later became wealthy in business and wrote a classic on successful business management; and Guan Yu (關羽) of the 3rd century CE, a powerful warrior and general of the late Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms era who was renown for his moral qualities of loyalty, righteousness, and honor.

There are also different classes of wealth gods like civil/literary wealth gods (文財神 Wen Caishen), martial/military wealth gods (武財神 Wu Caishen), and a group called the Wealth Gods of the Five Paths/Directions (五路財神 Wulu Caishen) which is actually Zhao Gongming as the leader of four other wealth deities. The most popular wealth god in Taoism is perhaps Zhao Gongming who is also known by his honorific titles of Marshal Zhao (趙公元帥 Zhaogong Yuanshuai) and Perfected Lord of the Mysterious Altar (玄壇真君 Xuantan Zhenjun). He is always depicted in military uniform with a black beard, riding on a tiger, and carrying a metal hard whip baton.

The popular figure of the wealth god seen in traditional Chinese culture (i.e. in pictures and posters like the one below) is probably based on Bi Gan. This wealth god is always depicted wearing a civil official’s robe and a minister’s cap. He has a long black beard and usually carries auspicious objects like the ruyi scepter, gold ingots and treasures, and scrolls with messages of good fortune. His warm smile always brings a festive mood to those who see him. 

A Nianhua (New Year Picture) of the Wealth God

(Image: Nipic)

Another fact of interest is that the Tibetan Buddhist tradition also has its own group of wealth deities. They are White Dzambhala, Yellow Dzambhala, Black Dzambhala, Red Dzambhala, and Green Dzambhala. These five Dzambhala deities are said to be the manifestations of enlightened Buddhas. However, they bestow wealth only on those that are properly motivated to practice the Buddhist teachings without worry due to lack of material necessities.

White Dzambhala from Tibetan Buddhism
(Image: Source unknown)

Regardless of the actual identity of the wealth god that has become popular today in folk culture, many traditionalists still observe his religious veneration, while many others are just happy to regard him as a secular holiday figure for Chinese new year (like Santa Claus for Christmas).


A modern cartoon depiction of the Wealth God

(Image: Nipic)

May the Wealth God bless everyone with prosperity and fortune!

Text © 2011 Harry Leong

The Buddhist View of Gods and Spirits



A ceremony in a Buddhist monastery

(Image: Sciencenet.cn)

When it comes to the topic of deity and spirit worship, some people who are general followers of traditional Chinese religion (also known as popular folk religion) may not have a clear understanding of Buddhist vs. non-Buddhist ideas of deity veneration. For uninformed followers, they do not distinguish between praying to popular deities and venerating the enlightened deities of the Buddhist tradition. And oftentimes as a consequence, many miscellaneous practices of popular spirit and deity worship are misclassified under the label of Buddhism. This discussion is certainly not meant to be a statement about which tradition is correct or superior. Instead, it is only meant to be an explanation of the proper doctrinal view from an orthodox Buddhist standpoint. This is necessary because even though Buddhism is one of the three great spiritual traditions of ancient China, it is often misunderstood by many of its nominal practitioners and non-practitioners alike.

From a Buddhist perspective, it should be clarified that Buddhist practitioners do not worship gods and spirits. While Buddhists certainly do believe in the existence of gods and spirits - since they are also part of the samsaric realms - Buddhists do not accept them as their objects of spiritual refuge because they are not considered enlightened beings. Gods and spirits have not transcended all their negative mental habits and defilements nor have they conquered their desires (although it is possible that some gods are probably farther advanced than human beings if they are also spiritual cultivators). Because they have not completely overcome their unwholesome mental afflictions, they can still experience to certain degrees all the various negative temperaments and emotions such as anger, hatred, jealousy, pride, and attachment. Therefore, from the Buddhist viewpoint, they are still bound by samsara (the endless cycle of death and rebirth) because they have not perfectly transformed their minds to attain spiritual awakening. In Buddhism, beings that are still bound by samsara are not qualified to be the objects of refuge. A good analogy would be a man that does not have his eyesight cannot lead other blind people out of darkness, or a man that cannot swim is incapable of saving others from the ocean. So, despite the fact that Buddhists do not venerate or worship ordinary gods and spirits, their proper attitude towards them is still one of distant respect. Buddhism even teaches its followers to show respect and equanimity towards fellow human beings, so how much more so for gods and spirits? Therefore, it is not uncommon to see a Buddhist monk or layman stop before a shrine dedicated to a deity of another spiritual tradition and bow as a simple gesture of respect. This is not to be confused with a Buddhist practicing the worship of ordinary gods and spirits. As an interesting note, it is even said that a god or spirit, upon seeing a nod from a good Buddhist cultivator, will also stand and humbly return the bow as a mark of mutual respect.

Since Buddhists only accept as their objects of refuge those beings that have achieved, or are on the verge of achieving complete and unsurpassable enlightenment, they solely venerate those beings that have attained liberation from samsara like the Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and arhats. In addition, it is also acceptable to venerate - but not to take refuge in - the Dharmapalas (Dharma defenders and protectors) and higher gods that act as guardians and/or supporters of the Buddhist teachings, as well as the ancestral patriarchs, realized masters, and teachers of the Buddhist lineage as a sign of respect.

Enlightened Beings from Chinese Pure Land Buddhism

Amitabha Buddha (阿彌陀佛 Amituofo) (center)

Bodhisattva Mahasthamaprapta (大勢至菩薩 Dashizhi Pusa) (left)

Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (觀世音菩薩 Guanshiyin Pusa) (right)

(Image: Source unknown)

On another level, the Buddhist practitioner, when venerating and prostrating to the enlightened deities, is actually also prostrating to his own inner Buddha nature. All sentient beings possess the same potential to achieve enlightenment just like the Buddhas. Thus, he takes them as his own spiritual goal, hoping one day to also become just like them.

Text © 2011 Harry Leong

Perfected Master Sun (Sun Simiao)

Sun Simiao, also known as Perfected Master Sun

(Image: Tjtcm.cn)

The 3rd day of the first Chinese lunar month is the Birthday of Perfected Master Sun (孫真人聖誕 Sun Zhenren Shengdan). Perfected Master Sun (孫真人 Sun Zhenren) refers to Sun Simiao (孫思邈) (581-682), a famous physician and herbalist of the Sui and Tang dynasty. He was a practitioner of Taoism and integrated it with Buddhism and Confucianism. He was the author of many important texts, but the two most significant ones were Essential Formulas for Emergencies Worth a Thousand Pieces of Gold (備急千金要方 Beiji Qianjin Yaofang) and Supplement to the Formulas Worth a Thousand Pieces of Gold (千金翼方 Qianjin Yifang). These two encyclopedic works are considered a very important achievement in the history of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Aside from being a valuable collection of over six thousand herbal formulas (along with the proper methods for their collection, processing, categorization, and storage), there are also important treatises on acupuncture, moxibustion, manipulative massage therapy, exercise, and diet. Of notable importance are volumes especially devoted to gynecology, obstetrics, pediatrics, and even mystical practices for treating spirit possession. Sun also contributed an important text on medical ethics called On the Absolute Sincerity of Great Physicians (大醫精誠 Dayi Jingcheng) which is sometimes called the Chinese Hippocratic Oath. Sun wrote: A Great Physician should not pay attention to status, wealth or age. Neither should he question whether the particular person is attractive or unattractive, whether he is an enemy or a friend, whether he is a Chinese or a foreigner, and finally, whether he is uneducated or educated. He should meet everyone on equal grounds. He should always act as if he were thinking of his close relatives. Sun’s works are considered the earliest texts on clinical medical practice and became required reading for all practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Sun lived to be 101 years of age, and after his death, he was posthumously granted the honorific titles King of Medicine (藥王 Yaowang) and Perfected Master Sun (孫真人 Sun Zhenren). He was deified by the Taoist religious community and venerated as a god of medicine and healing due to his almost superhuman contributions to Chinese medical knowledge and his moral principles on patient care.

Wooden statue of Sun Simiao as a medicine god

(Image: Itmonline.org)

May Sun Simiao’s healing knowledge and humanist values bring health and peace to all beings.

Text © 2011 Harry Leong